P-Value

A p-value quantifies the probability of obtaining results at least as extreme as those observed in a study, under the assumption that the null hypothesis (no real effect) is true. A p-value < 0.05 is conventionally considered 'statistically significant,' meaning there is less than a 5% chance the results are due to random chance alone. However, p-values do not measure the size or clinical importance of an effect, nor do they indicate the probability that the null hypothesis is true. Many supplement studies with statistically significant p-values show clinically trivial effects, while underpowered studies may miss real effects due to insufficient sample size.